REPORT
November, 2019
Read time: 3 min
Artificial Intelligence (AI) and big data are playing an increasingly important role in the economy. Competition law will have to evolve if it is to reconcile the positive and negative effects that the use of these new instruments may have on markets.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) and big data are playing an increasingly important role in the economy. Competition law will have to evolve if it is to reconcile the positive and negative effects that the use of these new instruments may have on markets.
Modern life is being progressively influenced by the âfourth industrial revolutionâ, whereby new and disruptive technologies and trends, such as the Internet of Things, robotics, virtual reality, AI, and big data are combined in ways that until recently were inconceivable. Although all these factors will influence the way we work and live, AI and big data are already playing a critical role in how companies make business decisions and interact with customers, suppliers, and one another. AI may even lead to the development of entirely new economic models.
Because of the relative novelty and rapid development of AI-based platforms and applications, antitrust agencies and commentators are struggling to establish how the existing competition law framework can be applied to the issues that arise out of the effects that AI and its use of data have on the functioning of markets.
Artificial Intelligence
AI is based on a tailor-made set of algorithms. An algorithm is itself a set of decision-making rules that is able to generate a precise output from certain data inputs. Traditional algorithms are relatively static (if this then that) and do not adapt their output based on feedback. AI introduces a self-learning element that allows the algorithm to adapt itself and get better and more efficient at its task as it processes more data.
AI is therefore a dynamic algorithm with an increasingly precise output. AI only works, however, if the underlying algorithms are fed sufficient data that allows the algorithm to learn and improve. For example, when a consumer searches online for a product, a supplierâs AI platform will collect data from the customerâs previous searches, and combine this with a detailed profile of the individual and statistics from the market, in order to propose a new product at the right time, personalised and priced appropriately to entice the consumer to make the purchase.
If the consumer buys a different product through the platform, that choice will become part of the updated dataset that determines what product may be proposed to this or similar consumers in the future. The chances that the proposed offer appeals to this consumer therefore increases over time.
AI, algorithms, and access to data clearly influence the functioning of markets and may therefore have direct or indirect implications under competition law.
Collusion
Collusion in oligopoly markets is one of the main concerns of competition agencies when assessing the effects of algorithms, even though enforcers and academic commentators differ on whether the use of algorithms will ultimately harm or benefit competition.
The use of AI in pricing algorithms is often feared to lead to tacit collusion i.e., the alignment of competitive behaviour without explicit agreement. Because algorithms are created with a specific purpose in mind, their propensity to result in tacit collusion depends on how the algorithm is programmed and used. Much depends on the number of competitors in the market and the willingness by some to compete aggressively.
Equally, it has often been argued that pricing algorithms create more opportunities for consumers to compare products and prices and ultimately get a better deal. In a market with sufficient suppliers, this is likely to hold true. In a market with few suppliers, this transparency may have the opposite effect and induce these few suppliers to align their prices.
Resale Price Maintenance
The first line imposed by the European Commission in this field related to the use of algorithms in e-commerce and concerned a vertical issue.
The Commission sanctioned four consumer electronics manufacturers that had engaged in resale price maintenance (RPM) practices with regard to their online retailers.
When those retailers did not follow the prices requested by the suppliers and instead offered their products at prices below the recommended resale price, they faced threats or sanctions from the manufacturers, such as blocking of supplies. The use of sophisticated monitoring tools allowed the manufacturers to effectively track resale price setting in the distribution network, and to intervene swiftly when it noted deviations from the recommended resale price. The price interventions limited effective price competition between retailers and led to higher prices for consumers.
An interesting element here is that the retailers themselves used pricing algorithms, which automatically adapted retail prices to those of competitors. In the Commissionâs view, this would have led to lower prices if it were not for the intervention by the manufacturers.
In addition to these collusive aspects, it is clear that algorithm-based business models could also give rise to potential abuse of market dominance by large operators.
Abuse of Dominance
By other new technologies, dominant market players may find new ways of leveraging their dominance and foreclosing other companies from the market. This was the case with a large search engine provider that was found to have abused its dominant position by altering, for its own benefit, the criteria of its generic search algorithm with the objective of demoting competing comparison shopping services in the search results list.
A main area of discussion regarding dominant companies is whether or not they should make their data sets available to companies that, without this data, will never make it in a given market. Access to data is therefore likely to be a hot topic for the new Commission.
Algorithms might entirely change the way suppliers interact with their customers in a market. By monitoring prices, customer profiles and behaviour and other factors, algorithms can create the âperfect price discriminationâ, which is the ability to charge customers exactly what they are willing to pay at any given time and circumstance. This individualised pricing is still relatively new from a competition law perspective, and raises the question of whether or not offers and transactions can be compared, and how they should be assessed from a competition law perspective.
On the other hand, consumers will also increasingly have access to platforms that use pricing algorithms to make markets more transparent and navigable, and help consumers make better choices. The same platforms may allow producers to react more quickly to consumer demand and market evolution, which could be viewed as efficiency enhancing.
The Way Forward
While the fourth industrial revolution is already upon us, and algorithms and AI are omnipresent, competition law enforcers are still struggling to determine how to deal with this new reality.  Disruptive technologies may have to adapt to competition law, but competition law will have to take into account new market realities, and enforcers will have to capture whether and where infringements are committed. Enforcement agencies may need to have recourse to AI themselves in detecting anticompetitive practices in future.
It is likely that AI and its applications will figure highly on the agenda of the new Commission when it takes office in November. All market players using AI will be watching what the policy agenda will bring, but the big data aggregators will likely have the most to fear.
Pedro GarcÃa de Pesquera Villagrán also contributed to this article.
This is the follow-up study to last yearâs research, The Race to GDPR. In this yearâs study, we expanded the research, for the first time, to include China and Japan in addition to the United States and Europe. A total of 1,263 organizations are represented in this study.
The uniquely demanding European Union (EU) General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) came into force on May 25, 2018, virtually transforming how organizations in every industry handle personal data. This study reflects practical difficulties and regional differences in levels of adherence to GDPR across Europe, the United States, China and Japan.
Participants in this study work in a variety of departments, including IT, IT security, compliance, legal, data protection office and privacy. All organizations represented in this research are subject to GDPR.
Executive Summary: GDPR Progress and Data Breach Management
GDPR work is ongoing; most organizations did not meet the May 25, 2018, deadline. Many organizations are renewing their GDPR budgets accordingly. Most organizations represented in this research report that GDPR implementation took longer than they had anticipated (54% of respondents) and that it was equally or more difficult to implement than other data privacy and security requirements (80% of respondents). Most organizations have a GDPR budget (72% of respondents), and about a third say the budget will be renewed annually (35% of respondents) or continue indefinitely (24% of respondents).
Read the full report here.
By David J. Levine, Raymond Paretzky
The US Treasury Department issued proposed regulations that would âcomprehensivelyâ implement legislation passed last year, FIRRMA, to broaden the jurisdiction of CFIUS. Interested parties have until October 17 to file comments that could influence how Treasury finalizes the rules.
On September 17, 2019, the US Treasury Department (Treasury) issued proposed regulations that would âcomprehensivelyâ implement legislation passed last year, the Foreign Investment Risk Review Modernization Act of 2018 (FIRRMA). This would broaden the jurisdiction of the Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States (CFIUS) to review foreign investments in the United States to determine their impact on US national security. FIRRMA expanded the role of CFIUS to review non-controlling foreign investments in US businesses and foreign investments in certain US real estate. Interested parties have until October 17, 2019, to file comments that could influence how Treasury finalizes the rules, which FIRRMA requires be completed by February 13, 2020.
Under prior legislation, CFIUS has had authority to review transactions that could result in control of a US business by a foreign person. FIRRMA expanded the authority of CFIUS to review certain foreign non-controlling investments and real estate transactions that previously fell outside its jurisdiction. A CFIUS review of any transaction may result in the transaction being cleared to proceed without revision, cleared to proceed with mitigating measures to address any national security issues, or blocked on account of unresolved national security issues. The new rules would provide important clarity and predictability for the business community concerning how CFIUS will treat foreign investment transactions.
Although FIRRMA provided for CFIUS to establish filing fee requirement for notifications and reviews, the new proposed rules do not impose a filing fee. Instead, Treasury has indicated that it will publish a separate proposed rule regarding fees at a later date.
The proposed rules can be accessed here: Proposed-FIRRMA-Regulations-Part-800 and Proposed-FIRRMA-Regulations-Part-802. CFIUS guidance on the proposed rules can be accessed here: Proposed-FIRRMA-Regulations-FACT-SHEET and Proposed-FIRRMA-Regs-FAQs. Following is a summary of key provisions.
Rules for ‘Covered Investments’
Prior to FIRRMA, CFIUS had authority to review controlling investments (primarily acquisitions) in US businesses by foreign persons, called âcovered transactions.â FIRRMA expanded CFIUSâs jurisdiction to authorize reviews of certain non-controlling investments by foreign persons in a US business if (1) such investment affords the foreign person.
- access to material non-public technical information;
- membership, observer, or nomination rights for the board of directors or equivalent; or
- involvement in substantive decision-making regarding
- use, development, acquisition, safekeeping, or release of âsensitive personal dataâ of US citizens;
- use, development, acquisition, or release of âcritical technologiesâ; or
- management, operation, manufacture, or supply of âcritical infrastructureâ;
and (2) if the US business is one that
- produces, designs, tests, manufactures, fabricates or develops one or more âcritical technologiesâ;
- owns, operates, manufactures, supplies or services âcritical infrastructureâ; or
- maintains or collects âsensitive personal dataâ of US citizens that may be exploited in a manner that threatens US national security.
In the first of two sets of proposed new rules, Treasury will amend its existing Title 31, Part 800 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) to define more clearly the highlighted terms above. The new rules would name such a non-controlling investment subject to CFIUS jurisdiction a âcovered investment,â rename a foreign controlling investment in a US business a âcovered control transactionâ and retain the old term âcovered transactionâ to cover both of the foregoing as well as any transaction intended to evade or circumvent the CFIUS law.
Under the new rules, CFIUS reviews of most covered investments would continue to be triggered by parties voluntarily notifying CFIUS of the transaction, by filing either a full notice or a short-form âdeclarationâ on a five-page form. However, pursuant to FIRRMA, the rules will make declarations mandatory for certain covered transactions where a foreign government has a âsubstantial interestâ or where the US business involves critical technologies. For the latter, Treasury already has established a âpilot programâ mandating declarations or notices for such covered investments, and the new rules would not at this time modify the pilot program.
Neither FIRRMA nor the proposed rules establish a âwhite listâ or âblack listâ to treat distinctly any specified countries or nationals thereof. However, the new rules would create an exception from âcovered investmentsâ (but not from âcovered control transactionsâ) for foreign persons that qualify as âexcepted investorsâ (i.e., investors tied to a country that CFIUS determines to be an âexcepted foreign stateâ based on that countryâs maintenance and compliance with certain laws and practices in furtherance of national security protection).
Rules for Certain Real Estate Transactions
In a second set of proposed rules creating a new Part 802 of CFR Title 31, Treasury would implement the provisions of FIRRMA that authorize CFIUS to review certain real estate transactions. Specifically, FIRRMA subjected to CFIUS jurisdiction the lease by, or concession to, a foreign person of private or public real estate that:
- is, is located within or will function as part of an air or maritime port;
- is in âclose proximityâ to (i.e., within one mile of) a US military installation or other sensitive US government property;
- could provide the foreign person the ability to collect intelligence on activities at such US government property; or
- could expose national security activities at such US government property to foreign surveillance risk.
An appendix to the proposed rules lists by name and location relevant military installations and incorporates lists of relevant airports and maritime ports published by the US Department of Transportation.
The rules do not impose a mandatory filing with CFIUS for covered real estate transactions; rather, parties to covered real estate transactions may voluntarily file a notice or short-form declaration to seek review and clearance by CFIUS.
As in the case of âcovered investments,â the new CFIUS real estate rules create exceptions from coverage for certain foreign persons defined as âexcepted real estate investorsâ if they have requisite ties to certain countries that CFIUS identifies as âexcepted real estate foreign statesâ and if the persons are found to comply with certain national security-related laws of those countries. The new rules provide other exceptions from the scope of covered real estate transactions for single housing units, real estate in an âurbanized areaâ and office space in multi-unit commercial office buildings.
Considerations for Parties to Covered Transactions and Covered Real Estate TransactionsÂ
FIRRMA, which passed with large bipartisan congressional and executive branch support, leaves a wide range of discretion for CFIUS. Those contemplating transactions involving foreign investment in the United States should carefully consider the scope of the new CFIUS rules, in conjunction with the political and practical dimensions of US national security concerns, to determine if and/or how the new rules may apply. From these perspectives, interested parties should also consider submitting comments prior to the comment deadline of October 17 to influence how Treasury finalizes the rules.
CFIUS will continue for now its pilot program mandating notification and CFIUS reviews for certain covered transactions involving US businesses with critical technologies in one of 27 specified industries. Accordingly, parties to such transactions will need to continue to adhere to the interim regulations issued by CFIUS for this program in October 2018 (see McDermott On the Subject on CFIUS Pilot Program).
The Second Circuitâs decision in United States v. Ng Lap Seng is a win for the government, because it reinforces the broad reach and scope of the Justice Departmentâs enforcement of the FCPA. When adopting and implementing an anti-corruption compliance program, international companies should continue to take measures to avoid any conduct that may place them at risk.
In Depth
On August 9, 2019, in United States v. Ng Lap Seng, the US Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit declined to extend the limitations established in the Supreme Courtâs McDonnell ruling to other federal corruption and bribery laws, including the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA). The Second Circuitâs decision means that prosecutors will not be constrained in prosecuting FCPA violations in the way the Supreme Court unanimously limited the application of the federal domestic corruption statute. A win for the government, the Second Circuitâs decision reinforces the broad reach and scope of the Justice Departmentâs enforcement of the FCPA.
In 2018, a jury in the Southern District of New York convicted Ng Lap Seng of violating the FCPA for paying two UN ambassadors more than $1 million to secure their commitment to base an annual UN conference at his Macau, China, real estate development. In particular, Ng paid one ambassador $20,000 per month purportedly to serve as president of a media organization called South-South News when, in fact, the ambassador understood a portion of that payment was to secure his support for the use of Ngâs development. In addition, Ng paid another ambassadorâs wife purportedly for consulting when, in fact, she never performed such services. After his conviction, Ng appealed, arguing among other points that the jury instructions for his FCPA violation were deficient under the Supreme Courtâs 2016 decision in McDonnell.
In McDonnell, the Supreme Court considered the meaning of âofficial actâ under 18 U.S.C. § 201, which penalizes the provision of âanything of valueâ for the purpose of influencing a public official to take an âofficial act.â The Supreme Court unanimously held that arranging a meeting, contacting other public officials or hosting events concerning a broad policy issue such as economic development, âwithout more,â did not qualify as âofficial act[s]â under the statute. The Court looked to the language of the statute, and had two statutory bases for its holding. First, under § 201, an âofficial actâ must involve a âquestion, matter, cause, suit, proceeding or controversyâ that is either pending or may be brought before a public official, or must involve a formal exercise of governmental power akin to a hearing, administrative proceeding or lawsuit. Second, to make a violation of the statute, the government must prove the public official made a decision or took an action âonâ that âofficial act.â
In his appeal, Ng argued that FCPA bribery charges required proof of an âofficial actâ satisfying the McDonnell standard. In joining a number of other circuits that have declined to extend McDonnell, the Second Circuit held that the FCPA has no such limiting requirement. First, the Court explained that no uniform definition applies to the word âbribeâ in the federal code. While Congress has generally prohibited âcorruptly giving an official âanything of valueâ (the quid),â not all federal bribery statutes identify an âofficial actâ as âthe necessary quo for bribery.â
The FCPA makes it a crime to âcorruptly ⊠give a foreign official anything of valueâ (the quid) for four purposes. First, for the purpose of âinfluencing any act or decision of such foreign official in his official capacity.â Second, for âinducing such foreign official to do or omit to do any act in violation of the lawful duty of such official.â Third, for âsecuring any improper advantage.â Or fourth, for âinducing such foreign official to use his influence with a foreign government or instrumentality thereof to affect or influence any act or decision of such government or instrumentality.â The Second Circuit explained that these four purposes are âthe quosâ under the FCPA, which further requires âthat the quos serve a particular purposeâ (i.e., to assist the giver in âobtaining,â âretainingâ or âdirectingâ business). Accordingly, the Second Circuit found that McDonnellâs ruling on the âquo component of briberyâ in §201(a)(3) does not âdelimit the quo components of other bribery statutes,â including the FCPA.
While prosecutors are now constrained in the types of conduct they can pursue in bribery cases against US officials, the Second Circuitâs ruling means that those same limits do not apply in FCPA prosecutions. Even if payments or gifts made to a foreign official do not result in an âofficial actâ by that official, such conduct could still result in an FCPA violation if it was done to influence or induce that official to take (or not take) action. Because the broad reach of the FCPA remains intact after the Second Circuitâs ruling, companies should continue to draw clear lines in their policies and codes of conduct prohibiting such payments, and in placing parameters around the provision of gifts and gratuities, to avoid any uncertainty as to what may place the company at legal risk.
The European Commission (EC) has found, on a prima facie basis, that Broadcom abused its dominant position. In order to avert the risk of serious and irreparable damage to competition, Broadcom has been ordered to cease its prima facie abusive conduct with almost immediate effect. This is the first time in 18 years that the EC has made use of such measure and could signal the re-awakening of a once-dormant tool.
Interim Measures Under EU Competition Law
The imposition of interim measures by the EC is a relatively rare occurrence. Since the Court of Justice of the European Unionâs judgment in Camera Care (Case 792/79 (1980)), which held that the EC has a right to impose interim measures, the EC has imposed them on only nine occasions, with the majority being in abuse of dominance cases.
The ECâs right to impose interim measures is now codified in Art. 8(1) of Regulation 1/2003. Pursuant to Art. 8(1), the EC may impose interim measures where the following conditions are met: there is a prima facie finding of infringement of competition law (Condition 1), and there is an urgent need for such measures to avert the risk of serious and irreparable damage to competition (Condition 2). Discharging the burden of proof for establishing âirreparabilityâ is particularly onerous, however, which explains why Art. 8(1) had never been invokedâuntil 16 October 2019, when the EC ordered Broadcom to stop applying certain provisions contained in agreements with six of its customers.
Interim Measures in Broadcom
In June 2019 the EC opened an investigation to examine whether Broadcom restricted competition in various markets for chipsets and components for so-called central office/head end equipment by engaging in certain practices, including tying, bundling and exclusivity. In parallel, the EC sent Broadcom a Statement of Objections (SO) preliminarily concluding that interim measures regarding certain aspects of its conduct may be required to ensure the effectiveness of any final decision. On 16 October 2019, the EC formally decided to impose interim measures on Broadcom. This was because Conditions 1 and 2 of Art. 8(1) of Regulation 1/2003 were, in the eyes of the EC, met.
Condition 1Â
Broadcom was, on a prima facie basis, found to hold a dominant position on three distinct markets for systems-on-a-chip: TV set-top boxes, fibre modems and xDSL modems.
Broadcom was found at first sight to be abusing its prima facie dominant position on the three aforementioned markets by having entered into anticompetitive clauses in agreements with six of its original equipment manufacturers for TV set-top boxes and modems. Specifically:
- With a view to reinforcing its dominance, Broadcom offered commercial advantages (e.g. rebates) in return for the customer purchasing solely or quasi-solely from Broadcom
- With a view to leveraging its prima facie dominance from the above-mentioned markets into the separate market for systems-on-a-chip for cable modems, Broadcom offered commercial advantages in these markets in return for the customer purchasing systems-on-a-chip for cable modems solely or quasi-solely from Broadcom
Condition 2
Regarding the urgent need for interim measures, the EC considered that if Broadcomâs conduct were permitted to continue, it would likely affect a number of tenders in the future, including in relation to the upcoming introduction of the WiFi 6 standard for modems and TV set-top boxes. This would in all probability lead to other chipset suppliers not being in a position to compete with Broadcom and ultimately might lead to their marginalisation or even exit.
The EC therefore required Broadcom, within 30 days of its decision and for a period of three years, to cease to apply the anticompetitive provisions and refrain from agreeing the same provisions or other provisions with equivalent object or effect in other agreements. The substantive investigation of the case remains ongoing.
Interim Measures – Alive and Kicking?
The Broadcom interim measures decision is the first time that Art. 8 of Regulation 1/2003 has been invoked. The last interim measures decision goes back 18 years, when the EC used this tool against IMS Health in 2001 (which the EC ultimately withdrew in 2003).
Until now, the EC has been reticent to make use of this procedural tool. This can be explained by the heavy burden of proof on the EC when seeking to invoke Art. 8(1). The high risk that its decisions would subsequently be challenged before the EU courts has led the EC to leave the use of interim measures to national competition authorities (NCAs). These NCAs often operate under a lower burden of proof when imposing such measures. For example, in France, where such powers are more regularly used, the French authority âonlyâ needs to prove a serious and immediate damage to competitionâwhich implies a lower burden of proof than that pertaining to the concept of âirreparabilityâ enshrined in Art. 8(1) of Regulation 1/2003.
Nevertheless, the ECâs reticence to invoke Art. 8(1) appears to be fading. This is particularly the case with respect to fast-moving technology marketsâowing possibly, at least to some degree, to the vociferous criticism the EC received for having taken so long to conclude the Google Shopping case. Indeed, following the Broadcom decision, Margrethe Vestager, competition commissioner and chief coordinator of the digital portfolio, warned that in fast-moving technology markets she is now âcommitted to making the best possible use of this important toolâ in order to enforce competition rules âin a fast and effective mannerâ. In further testimony of the ECâs change of heart, DG Comp is now actively screening all cases to see whether they are candidates for the application of interim measures. In doing so, the EC will likely seek to draw inspiration from the significant experience that NCAs have with this procedural mechanism.
Broadcom has challenged the ECâs interim measures decision, a re-awakening of the EC interim measures mechanism would have its advantages. For one, interim measures taken by the EC have effect throughout the European Union and thus avert any risk of different Member States taking contradictory positions in this regard. On the other hand, the speed with which interim measures are imposed is often critical. Given the length of time it took the EC to impose interim measures in Broadcom (three months from issuance of the SO), and unless the EC finds a way to expedite the procedure, it may still be more advantageous to seek interim measures from national courts which can impose them within a matter of days, albeit with only national reach.
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